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Cisco Router Basics

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In preparation of our CCNA exam, we want to make sure we cover the various concepts that we could see on our Cisco CCNA exam. So to assist you, below we will discuss Cisco Router Basics.

Basics Of Cisco Routers

Introduction

Cisco is well known for its routers and switches. I must admit they are very good quality products and once they are up and running, you can pretty much forget about them because they rarely fail.

We are going to focus on routers here since that’s the reason you clicked on this page !

Cisco has a number of different routers, amongst them are the popular 1600 series, 2500 series and 2600 series. The ranges start from the 600 series and go up to the 12000 series (now we are talking about a lot of money).

Below are a few of the routers mentioned :

All the above equipment runs special software called the Cisco Internetwork Operating System or IOS. This is the kernel of Cisco routers and most switches. Cisco has created what they call Cisco Fusion, which is supposed to make all Cisco devices run the same operating system.

We are going to begin with the basic components which make up a Cisco router (and switches) and I will be explaining what they are used for, so grab that tea or coffee and let’s get going !

The basic components of any Cisco router are :

Interfaces The Processor (CPU) Internetwork Operating System (IOS) RXBoot Image RAM NVRAM ROM Flash memory Configuration Register Now I just hope you haven’t looked at the list and thought “Stuff this, it looks hard and complicated” because I assure you, it’s less painful than you might think ! In fact, once you read it a couple of times, you will find all of it easy to remember and understand.

Interfaces

These allow us to use the router ! The interfaces are the various serial ports or ethernet ports which we use to connect the router to our LAN. There are a number of different interfaces but we are going to hit the basic stuff only.

Here are some of the names Cisco has given some of the interfaces: E0 (first Ethernet interface), E1 (second Ethernet interface). S0 (first Serial interface), S1 (second Serial interface), BRI 0 (first B channel for Basic ISDN) and BRI 1 (second B channel for Basic ISDN).

In the picture below you can see the back view of a Cisco router, you can clearly see the various interfaces it has:(we are only looking at ISDN routers)

You can see that it even has phone sockets ! Yes, that’s normal since you have to connect a digital phone to an ISDN line and since this is an ISDN router, it has this option with the router. I should, however, explain that you don’t normally get routers with ISDN S/T and ISDN U interfaces together. Any ISDN line requires a Network Terminator (NT) installed at the customer’s premises and you connect your equipment after this terminator. An ISDN S/T interface doesn’t have the NT device built in, so you need an NT device in order to use the router. On the other hand, an ISDN U interface has the NT device built in to the router.

Check the picture below to see how to connect the router using the different ISDN interfaces:

Apart from the ISDN interfaces, we also have an Ethernet interface that connects to a device in your LAN, usually a hub or a computer. If connecting to a Hub uplink port, then you set the small switch to “Hub”, but if connecting to a PC, you need to set it to “Node”. This switch will simply convert the cable from a straight through (hub) to a x- over (Node):

The Config or Console port is a Female DB9 connector which you connect, using a special cable, to your computers serial port and it allows you to directly configure the router.

The Processor (CPU)

All Cisco routers have a main processor that takes care of the main functions of the router. The CPU generates interrupts (IRQ) in order to communicate with the other electronic components in the router. The Cisco routers utilise Motorola RISC processors. Usually the CPU utilisation on a normal router wouldn’t exceed 20 %.

The IOS

The IOS is the main operating system on which the router runs. The IOS is loaded upon the router’s bootup. It usually is around 2 to 5MB in size, but can be a lot larger depending on the router series. The IOS is currently on version 12, and Cisco periodically releases minor versions every couple of months e.g 12.1 , 12.3 etc. to fix small bugs and also add extra functionality.

The IOS gives the router its various capabilities and can also be updated or downloaded from the router for backup purposes. On the 1600 series and above, you get the IOS on a PCMCIA Flash card. This Flash card then plugs into a slot located at the back of the router and the router loads the IOS “image” (as they call it). Usually this image of the operating system is compressed so the router must decompress the image in its memory in order to use it.

The IOS is one of the most critical parts of the router, without it the router is pretty much useless. Just keep in mind that it is not necessary to have a flash card (as described above with the 1600 series router) in order to load the IOS. You can actually configure most Cisco routers to load the image off a network tftp server or from another router which might hold multiple IOS images for different routers, in which case it will have a large capacity Flash card to store these images.

The RXBoot Image

The RXBoot image (also known as Bootloader) is nothing more than a “cut-down” version of the IOS located in the router’s ROM (Read Only Memory). If you had no Flash card to load the IOS from, you can configure the router to load the RXBoot image, which would give you the ability to perform minor maintenance operations and bring various interfaces up or down.

The RAM

The RAM, or Random Access Memory, is where the router loads the IOS and the configuration file. It works exactly the same way as your computer’s memory, where the operating system loads along with all the various programs. The amount of RAM your router needs is subject to the size of the IOS image and configuration file you have. To give you an indication of the amounts of RAM we are talking about, in most cases, smaller routers (up to the 1600 series) are happy with 12 to 16 MB while the bigger routers with larger IOS images would need around 32 to 64 MB of memory. Routing tables are also stored in the system’s RAM so if you have large and complex routing tables, you will obviously need more RAM ! When I tried to upgrade the RAM on a Cisco 1600 router, I unscrewed the case and opened it and was amazed to find a 72 pin SIMM slot where you needed to attach the extra RAM. For those who don’t know what a 72 pin SIMM is, it’s basically the type of RAM the older Pentium socket 7 CPUs took, back in ‘95. This type of memory was replaced by today’s standard 168 pin DIMMs or SDRAM.

The NVRAM (Non-Volatile RAM)

The NVRAM is a special memory place where the router holds its configuration. When you configure a router and then save the configuration, it is stored in the NVRAM. This memory is not big at all when compared with the system’s RAM. On a Cisco 1600 series, it is only 8 KB while on bigger routers, like the 2600 series, it is 32 KB. Normally, when a router starts up, after it loads the IOS image it will look into the NVRAM and load the configuration file in order to configure the router. The NVRAM is not erased when the router is reloaded or even switched off.

ROM (Read Only Memory)

The ROM is used to start and maintain the router. It contains some code, like the Bootstrap and POST, which helps the router do some basic tests and bootup when it’s powered on or reloaded. You cannot alter any of the code in this memory as it has been set from the factory and is Read Only.

Flash Memory

The Flash memory is that card I spoke about in the IOS section. All it is, is an EEPROM (Electrical Eraseable Programmable Read Only Memory) card. It fits into a special slot normally located at the back of the router and contains nothing more than the IOS image(s). You can write to it or delete its contents from the router’s console. Usually it comes in sizes of 4MB for the smaller routers (1600 series) and goes up from there depending on the router model.

Configuration Register

Keeping things simple, the Configuration Register determines if the router is going to boot the IOS image from its Flash, tftp server or just load the RXBoot image. This register is a 16 Bit register, in other words has 16 zeros or ones. A sample of it in Hex would be the following: 0×2102 and in binary is : 0010 0001 0000 0010.

We hope you found this Cisco certification article helpful. We pride ourselves on not only providing top notch Cisco CCNA exam information, but also providing you with the real world Cisco CCNA skills to advance in your networking career.

Go to CiscoKits for your free Cisco Certification training. Cisco CCNA, CCNP, and CCIE training along with many options for Cisco home lab kits!

Chakra Meditation And The Power Of Chakra Sound

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The chakra is a Sanskrit word that literally means a spinning wheel or vortex. Its other meaning are the seven chakras found in the human body which corresponds to the glandular systems of the body. Each chakra is a center of spinning energy where the first chakra is found at the base of the spine while the seventh, at the crown.

As the chakra is a center of spinning energy and something that moves, it causes vibrations. These vibrations cause sound and this is the reason why there is vibration in different parts of the body through chakra sounds of varying frequencies.

Seven different chakra sounds come from the seven chakras. Colors also vibrate with the sound at different frequencies. There are different colors associated with the different chakras and it is the combination of the chakra sound and color that restores balance in chakras. This in turn improves health.

You only need your voice for sound healing via chakra sounds, to feel better, calmer and clearer in a matter of minutes. However these chakra sounds should be soft and gentle, and not longer than five minutes duration each.

1. You start with an UH sound, which is the deepest sound you can make. You have to do this with your eyes closed and attention focused on the base chakra, found at the spine base. You have to be aware of the sound resonance in the body; not from your throat, but from where the chakra is. You can complement visualization of this chakra sound with red color. This chakra sound has to be made for a minute or two but not more than five minutes.

2. The next chakra sound has to come from the second chakra found three inches below the naval. You have to chant OOO while complimenting the chakra sound with orange. You have to chant with eyes closed to experience the balancing of the chakra with other chakras for one or two minutes.

3. OH is the third chakra sound that has to come from the navel chakra located in the navel area. Yellow is the complimenting color and the chakra sound should start softly and gently, but with a higher tone than the last sound.

4. AH is the sound people cry out when in love, and is also the chakra sound for the heart chakra. This chakra is located in the middle of the chest, and is related to love. It is associated with the color green and has to be started with a soft and gentle sound that has a higher pitch than the previous chakra sound.

5. EYE is the chakra sound for the throat chakra that can be complimented with blue. This chakra sound too has to be higher in pitch than the previous sounds.

6. AYE is the chakra sound for the third chakra found a bit higher than the two eyes, and in the forehead. The chakra sound is associated with indigo and has to be started with a soft and gentle tone, but should be of a higher pitch than previous sounds.

7. EEE is the highest sound you can create for the crown chakra found at the top of the head. Purple can be used for complimenting this chakra sound which starts with the highest EEE sound you can make. This chakra sound too starts soft and gentle.

You have to close your eyes when chanting all the chakra sounds while concentrating on different chakras. When you focus on the different chakras, you find chakra sounds projecting from the respective chakras. And with the resonance of the sound chakras, each chakra starts balancing and aligning with other chakras.

After the exercise, you are sure to feel light headed. It is better to relax or meditate after this to process your experience and realize the actual benefits you gain through chakra sounds.

Nisal Karuiyaratna is one of the experts who writes for chakra-balance.com site. To get more information on how understanding about chakra meditation can change your life and how you can get free chakra sound Audios visit here.

Why Not To Buy A Light Truck?

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Today more and more people think of a light truck when they think of their dream car. The positive side to this is that many light trucks are reasonably affordable, making them accessible to just about everyone.

The light truck market is currently a study in irony: these vehicles are popular primarily because they exhibit a ruggedness not found in passenger cars, but as their popularity increases, automotive designers are making them look and feel more and more like regular passenger cars. More and more contemporary MPVs feature fancy dashboards and cushy bucket scats. Also, one can order just about any 4×4 with air conditioning. Some have power windows.

Despite these advances in softening the hard edges of the light truck population, they are, like minivans, considered to be MPVs. This means that they also don’t necessarily meet many of the safety standards found on passenger cars. Since minivans are so obviously used as passenger cars most of the time, they often do have a reasonable complement of goodies for the safety-minded.

It should also be pointed out in discussing this particular group of vehicles that pricing works a little differently with MPVs than with passenger cars. The base prices quoted in ads and at dealerships refer to stripped-down models which are rarely available, and which one would often not like to buy. The options list is much longer than for passenger cars-especially among domestic products. Options are also often bundled in pricey trim packages. It’s easy to add thousands of dollars to the price of one of these vehicles, even when one wants just the basics.

Functionality of small and medium-size pickups is obvious; they can do much of the work of a light-duty large pickup while providing the driver and a passenger with the same amount of seating room-and delivering far better fuel economy. When ordered in their long wheelbase/long cargo bed versions, the smaller pickups can handle the same size load as large pickups with small cargo beds.

Most are available in ‘extended cab’ form, which usually offers two extra fold-down seats behind the driver and front passenger. However, it’s not likely that adults would be comfortable back there on any but the shortest of trips. These jump seats, of sorts, also make for awkward child safety seat attachment in many cases.

In terms of safety features, many of these pickups come up a bit short- one has to pay extra for a rear bumper on many of the cheapest models, and interior padding is also on the skimpy side-although this is becoming less of a problem as these pickup trucks become more ‘refined’, i.e., car-like in their trimmings.

Although the cargo bed is a great idea for people wishing to haul things, it is a bit of an inconvenience in our climate. If one doesn’t buy a cover, or a truck cap for the bed, snow and rain will turn it into a messy pool. Furthermore, without the cap or another accessory that can be locked, whatever one leaves in the bed is left at the mercy of passers-by. Also, look for a double-wall cargo bed. In single wall designs, little dents and scrapes from objects placed in the bed will leave scars on the outside of the bed as well-and these will rust quickly if left unrepaired.

As with the interior trim, ride and handling arc improving a great deal on little pickups, but these are still a far cry from even the most rudimentary passenger cars. Traction on slippery roads is poor unless the vehicle is fully loaded, or if a four-wheel drive model is chosen.

If you are going to buy sell cars, ask members of a Car Club for advice.

Easily Find And Secure: Angel Investors, Private Investors, Institutional Investors And More!

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Easily Find And Secure: Angel Investors, Private Investors, Institutional Investors And More! Raising capital for a start-up, corporation in expansion mode or a company in virtually any position presents it’s challenges and roadblocks. There has been no period in recent history that can simulate the difficulties that current entrepreneurs and executives are having when trying to achieve the procurement of venture capital. The standards have become more stringent and the cross-collateralization of personal and corporate assets as security for loans has virtually become a mandatory prerequisite for any type of funding, equity or loan based.

When initiating the process of raising capital one should take into consideration the use of a combination of funding options such as but not limited to: traditional venture capital, bank institutional, institutional equity investment, hedge fund lenders, private money lending, angel equity and loan investment, a private placement memorandum as the mechanism for raising capital distributed in shares, international equity based funding, the reality of taking your small business public on the OTCBB and many other concepts of capital raising that can be placed into a simultaneous strategy.

It’s a common mistake among entrepreneurs and executives to place all of their attention and time into one singular aspect of the above funding concepts. Instead, you should pick a multi pronged approach and go after multiple genres of financing for your business. Some avenues will yield success, some will not but you are more likely to achieve incremental funding successes as oppose to one gargantuan, be all and end all finance victory.

To achieve funding you’ll need to be able to contact multiple finance sources to start the ball rolling. Find online membership database sites that are owned and operated by professionals in the venture capital industry.

There is a big difference between a generalized database of possible lenders and a strategic database of success driven finance solutions. Find the most cutting edge, full range database on the web and join them.

Do You Need Financing For Your Business? Do You Need Angel Investors, Private Investors or Venture Capital, then visit Angel Funding Project’s site and find the best Business Funding Sources In The Industry.

From Day One – Learning How To Be A Speed Reader

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The Be Dynamic Through Speed Reading method, by Dr. Jay Polmar, is designed for people that read large volumes of printed material. Sometimes they get frustrated when they can’t keep up with all the intriguing literature that is released. Authors around the world produce printed data and fiction, at a rate so phenomenal, that even the most avid of readers struggle to keep up. With our DYNAMIC SPEED READING method, you’ll easily be able to read twice to three times the amount you now read in the same time.

The human brain/mind is capable of comprehending and cataloging from 10,000 to 50,000 units of information per minute (one unit being equal to one word) and this is based upon old statistics. Based on new technology in education and strides in self-development, your brain/mind is capable of much more.

The human body is a vehicle that records various senses and transfers them to the brain/mind. The brain/mind acts like a computer. Perhaps the brain/mind is the body’s operational computer to make easier for us to learn. We learn through information (data) which is transmitted in many ways. We receive data through our five physical senses, and our brain/mind makes decisions, choices and judgments from those factors.

Our limitations in reading were programmed during childhood when we were first taught to read. Yet, brain/mind researchers have shown that through DYNAMIC SPEED READING method, thousands have broken that pattern and increased speeds dramatically.

This course teaches techniques for becoming Dynamic. We expect you, minimally, to become a speed reader who loves to read and improve the quality of your life. Maximally, we expect great, positive successes from our students. A beginning average reading speed for the average American high school graduate is about 250 words per minute. Those from the south read somewhat slower because of their drawl. Those who stutter also read slower. An average college student reads approximately 300 w.p.m.

Please take note: Recent studies have indicated that the English reading rate has dropped due to poor education in the past decade. The reduction of reading speed is astounding averaging 35% poor reading rates in the US. Be Dynamic undoes the damage of poor education system and was developed by Dr. Jay Polmar, who studied in the US when education mean something special and reading was king.

Be Dynamic Through Speed Reading by Dr. Jay Polmar is now available on Amazon.com in printed and Kindle books and with the unique audio programming system that makes you the best student you can be.

Get the best grades with Be Dynamic and learn to Be Dynamic through Speed Reading

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